Minoru shirota biography of william hill

Abstract

For thousands of years, humans have safely consumed microorganisms through fermented foods. Many of these bacteria are considered probiotics, which act through diverse mechanisms to confer a health benefit to the host. However, it was not until the availability of whole-genome sequencing and the era of genomics that mechanisms of probiotic efficacy could be discovered. In this review, we explore the history of the probiotic concept and the current standard of integrated genomic techniques to discern the complex, beneficial relationships between probiotic microbes and their hosts.

Keywords: Probiotic, Lactic acid bacteria, Fermentation, Genomics, Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria

Introduction

History of probiotic bacteria and the probiotic concept

A multitude of autochthonous (naturally occurring) commensal bacterial species inhabit the mucosal surfaces of the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT), as well as those of the nose, mouth and vagina. It has long been held that the consumption of allochthonous (transient) beneficial bacteria, either through food products or supplements, has a positive influence on general health and well-being of the host via commensal interactions with the GIT immune system and resident microbiota. These beneficial microorganisms, known as probiotics, are defined by the World Health Organization as “live microorganisms, which when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit upon the host” (FAO/WHO 2002). Over the past four decades, there has been substantial research in the field of probiotics and, more specifically, into the mechanism of probiotic action within the host. However, the probiotic concept is not novel to the twentieth century and twenty-first centuries.

For millennia, humans have consumed microorganisms via fermented foods, which served to prevent putrefaction as well as increase sensory aspects in the food. Some of the first fermentations were likely the result of serendipitous contaminations in favoura

Introduction

Mycotoxin, a low-molecular-weight secondary metabolite produced by certain fungi is a highly toxic substance (Flores-Flores et al., 2015). The production of mycotoxin due to fungal infection in foods occurs mainly in tropical regions, with conditions such as high temperatures and moisture, unseasonal rains during harvest, and flash floods. Besides, other factors such as poor harvesting practices, improper storage, and inadequate optimal conditions during transportation, marketing and processing can also contribute to the growth of fungi in the food commodities and subsequently the production of mycotoxin (Umereweneza et al., 2018). Due to the incessant and ubiquitous exposure of mycotoxins, the contamination of food and agricultural commodities is a public concern globally, where their occurrence in the food chain cannot be disregarded. In fact, the dosage, duration of exposure, type of mycotoxins, and physiological, genetic and nutritional status (Antonissen et al., 2014) can influence the adverse effects of mycotoxins on human and animals health.

The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) described that several species of Aspergillus are the producer of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), the predominant and most dangerous mycotoxin. In addition, a study conducted by the World Health Organisation (WHO) Foodborne Disease Burden Epidemiology Reference Group from 2007 to 2015 revealed that aflatoxin exposure was extremely high in the Western Pacific regions, which resulted in a median death rate of 1 per 200,000 inhabitants (WHO, 2015). Of many aflatoxin metabolites, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2002) has classified AFB1 as a Group 1 carcinogen (carcinogenic to humans and animals). It is evident that the carcinogenicity of aflatoxins is linked to the genotoxic mech

Mapping the biosphere is like mapping deep space; the more knowledge we gain, the more complex and surprising the evolution of the biosphere turns out to be. Research suggests that nearly two million species are known, and another 18,000 new plants and animals are discovered each year; and that does not account for the innumerable mutations of microorganisms. The human body is also an extraordinary multi-cellular organism that is home to a collection of bacteria and other microorganisms; estimates suggest there may be just as many bacteria in our bodies as human cells.

Take, for example, the microorganisms that live in our digestive tracts known as the human gastrointestinal microbiota or gut flora. Many non-human animals, including insects, host numerous microorganisms that reside in their gastrointestinal tract. Indeed, all life forms are what Ilya Prigogine called ‘dissipative structures’ – a constant flow of material (heat, air, water and food) passing through our systems, transforming into energy and growth. This continuous recycling, ‘movement’ or ‘motion’ is a key principle of ecology and, as ‘open systems’, all organisms produce waste, and that waste, is food for another species.

As environmental activist, food sovereignty advocate, and anti-globalisation author, Vandana Shiva insists that “there is no waste in ecology”. And Lynn Margulis, co-author of Gaia theory, asserts that “there is little doubt that the planetary patina – including ourselves – is autopoietic”. This is the self-perpetuating process of evolution, exemplified at the levels of the planet, ecosystems, our intestines and bacteria.

Since Victorian times, faeces has